The Classical Heritage
The ancient world provides rich traditions of professionalism. Biblical artisan Bezalel lived around 1200 BC. We can push back the history of the professions a little further back to ancient Egypt. The first professional known by name may have been Imhotep, the minister of pharaoh Djoser in Egypt, from around 2600 BC. Imhotep designed the first building of crafted stone, the stepped pyramid of pharaoh Djoser in Memphis. He may also have been a physician. He was greatly honored by the Egyptians.
The Greeks were traders and travelers, and they gathered much from older civilizations, but their original contributions to philosophy and science were nevertheless outstanding. The Romans assimilated Greek culture and spread it further through their conquests. They also made some original contributions in Medicine, Law and Engineering.
The Medical Profession in Greece
Hippocrates (460 – 377 BC) made foundational contributions to Medicine and Medical Ethics. He was born in the Greek island of Cos from an aristocratic family of established medical reputation. Although it is not clear whether the material known as the Hippocratic corpus was written by Hippocrates or by his disciples, this large body of work was the first systematic attempt at organizing medical knowledge, which included descriptions of examination procedures, diagnosis, and remedies.[1]
In the Hippocratic tradition, Medicine developed a strong social or ethical orientation. The physician received payment for his services, but his concern for the patient was primary. Included in his famous oath is a service-oriented view of medical knowledge: “I will use my power to help the sick to the best of my ability and judgment.”
Roman Law
Written laws had been an integral part of early civilizations, and the laws of Solon, an Athenian ruler, are one of the best examples. As in other things, the Romans were influenced by Greek Law, but they developed their legal system to a considerable level of sophistication, perhaps due to the needs of their large empire, and this system became the basis for many of the legal systems of the modern world.
Architecture and Engineering
The development of architecture and building construction has a long history in the ancient world. As in other areas, the Greeks learned and incorporated much of this knowledge through their travels. In architecture, the Greeks distinguished themselves mostly in the quality of their building decorations. The Romans, however, made significant contributions in architecture and building construction.
The Preservation of Knowledge as Rome Fell
As the Roman Empire became Christianized, some conflicts between Greco-Roman culture and Christian values became apparent, but in general, Christianity embraced and attempted to assimilate and harmonize this cultural heritage with its fundamental principles. St. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-389), an influential theologian, recognized that scientific studies could be used to improve Christian life, and thus could be seen as a work of charity:
The ancient world provides rich traditions of professionalism. Biblical artisan Bezalel lived around 1200 BC. We can push back the history of the professions a little further back to ancient Egypt. The first professional known by name may have been Imhotep, the minister of pharaoh Djoser in Egypt, from around 2600 BC. Imhotep designed the first building of crafted stone, the stepped pyramid of pharaoh Djoser in Memphis. He may also have been a physician. He was greatly honored by the Egyptians.
The Greeks were traders and travelers, and they gathered much from older civilizations, but their original contributions to philosophy and science were nevertheless outstanding. The Romans assimilated Greek culture and spread it further through their conquests. They also made some original contributions in Medicine, Law and Engineering.
The Medical Profession in Greece
Hippocrates (460 – 377 BC) made foundational contributions to Medicine and Medical Ethics. He was born in the Greek island of Cos from an aristocratic family of established medical reputation. Although it is not clear whether the material known as the Hippocratic corpus was written by Hippocrates or by his disciples, this large body of work was the first systematic attempt at organizing medical knowledge, which included descriptions of examination procedures, diagnosis, and remedies.[1]
In the Hippocratic tradition, Medicine developed a strong social or ethical orientation. The physician received payment for his services, but his concern for the patient was primary. Included in his famous oath is a service-oriented view of medical knowledge: “I will use my power to help the sick to the best of my ability and judgment.”
Roman Law
Written laws had been an integral part of early civilizations, and the laws of Solon, an Athenian ruler, are one of the best examples. As in other things, the Romans were influenced by Greek Law, but they developed their legal system to a considerable level of sophistication, perhaps due to the needs of their large empire, and this system became the basis for many of the legal systems of the modern world.
Architecture and Engineering
The development of architecture and building construction has a long history in the ancient world. As in other areas, the Greeks learned and incorporated much of this knowledge through their travels. In architecture, the Greeks distinguished themselves mostly in the quality of their building decorations. The Romans, however, made significant contributions in architecture and building construction.
The Preservation of Knowledge as Rome Fell
As the Roman Empire became Christianized, some conflicts between Greco-Roman culture and Christian values became apparent, but in general, Christianity embraced and attempted to assimilate and harmonize this cultural heritage with its fundamental principles. St. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-389), an influential theologian, recognized that scientific studies could be used to improve Christian life, and thus could be seen as a work of charity:
For as we ought not to neglect the heavens, and earth, and air, and all such things, because some have wrongly seized upon them, and honor God’s works instead of God: but to reap what advantage we can from them for our life and enjoyment, while we avoid their dangers. [2]
The harmonization effort, however, was disrupted by the chaos resulting from the barbarian invasions, as Rome fell to the Visigoths in 476. The Western empire was gradually dismembered among the waves of invaders, and this left little opportunity for study of any kind, until the reign of Charlemagne, king of the Franks (768-800) and emperor (800-814), who brought some order to the West. Charlemagne decreed that schools should be opened at monasteries and cathedrals, and gradually, some interest in learning was reawakened.
The First Universities
During the early twelfth century some cathedral schools began to distinguish themselves based on the reputation of their masters, and they attracted students from all of Europe. There were several schools in Paris, but they were not very important before the twelfth century, when, along with the growth of the French monarchy and the city itself, these schools rose to the forefront of European education. After the middle of the century, the number of masters and students in Paris required some sort of organization. The masters took the lead on this, and some regulations were established on curriculum and length of study. A similar development took place at Bologna, another important urban center, except that at Bologna the students took the leadership. These chartered schools at Paris and Bologna are considered to be the first universities.
The Rebirth of the Medical Profession
Throughout the Middle Ages, many monasteries had infirmaries and herb gardens to take care of the medical needs of the monks, and some of the monks became skilled in surgery. Important translations of Greek and Arabic medical works were carried out at the monastery of Monte Cassino and at Salerno, Italy during the eleventh century. These translations began to be used at Salerno during the twelfth century, when there was a change in the medical approach there from the essentially practical to a more theoretical basis.[3] Medical education at Salerno reached its peak during the last quarter of the twelfth century.
The Medieval Legal Profession
Before the twelfth century, most clerical work was in the hands of ecclesiastics. This monopoly began to be broken with the renewed interest in Roman Law, which was mostly in the hands of laymen, especially in Italian cities. The formalization of legal education was primarily the result of the leadership of Bologna, under a series of respected law professors.[4] John of Salisbury, the twelfth century scholar and courtier expresses the value of the emerging rule by law:
The First Universities
During the early twelfth century some cathedral schools began to distinguish themselves based on the reputation of their masters, and they attracted students from all of Europe. There were several schools in Paris, but they were not very important before the twelfth century, when, along with the growth of the French monarchy and the city itself, these schools rose to the forefront of European education. After the middle of the century, the number of masters and students in Paris required some sort of organization. The masters took the lead on this, and some regulations were established on curriculum and length of study. A similar development took place at Bologna, another important urban center, except that at Bologna the students took the leadership. These chartered schools at Paris and Bologna are considered to be the first universities.
The Rebirth of the Medical Profession
Throughout the Middle Ages, many monasteries had infirmaries and herb gardens to take care of the medical needs of the monks, and some of the monks became skilled in surgery. Important translations of Greek and Arabic medical works were carried out at the monastery of Monte Cassino and at Salerno, Italy during the eleventh century. These translations began to be used at Salerno during the twelfth century, when there was a change in the medical approach there from the essentially practical to a more theoretical basis.[3] Medical education at Salerno reached its peak during the last quarter of the twelfth century.
The Medieval Legal Profession
Before the twelfth century, most clerical work was in the hands of ecclesiastics. This monopoly began to be broken with the renewed interest in Roman Law, which was mostly in the hands of laymen, especially in Italian cities. The formalization of legal education was primarily the result of the leadership of Bologna, under a series of respected law professors.[4] John of Salisbury, the twelfth century scholar and courtier expresses the value of the emerging rule by law:
...all law is a sort of discovery and a gift from God, the teaching of the wise, the corrective to excesses of willfulness, the harmony of the city, and the banishment of crime. It is proper for all who dwell in the community of political affairs to live according to it.[5]
Master Masons
The art of working with stones was preserved and cultivated throughout the Middle Ages. Lombardy, in particular, was famous for its master masons. The construction demand caused by economic progress, and the increasing appreciation of the artistic aspects of building design encouraged the development of the trade of the master masons, who combined apprenticed crafts with some applications of Greek mathematical knowledge. A new style emerged during the twelfth century that would match the spirit of exuberance of this century. The expanded Abbey of Saint Dennis near Paris is considered to be the first Gothic building (see photo on top right). The design and construction was done under the direction of Abbot Suger from 1135 to 1144. Suger believed that our minds can rise to the spiritual through the inspiration of material objects such as church structure and decorations:
The art of working with stones was preserved and cultivated throughout the Middle Ages. Lombardy, in particular, was famous for its master masons. The construction demand caused by economic progress, and the increasing appreciation of the artistic aspects of building design encouraged the development of the trade of the master masons, who combined apprenticed crafts with some applications of Greek mathematical knowledge. A new style emerged during the twelfth century that would match the spirit of exuberance of this century. The expanded Abbey of Saint Dennis near Paris is considered to be the first Gothic building (see photo on top right). The design and construction was done under the direction of Abbot Suger from 1135 to 1144. Suger believed that our minds can rise to the spiritual through the inspiration of material objects such as church structure and decorations:
Thus, when -out of my delight in the beauty of the house of God- the loveliness of the many-colored gems has called me away from external cares, and worthy meditation has induced me to reflect, transferring that which is material to that which is immaterial...[6]
References:
[1] Jacques Jouanna, "The Birth of Western Medical Art" in Mirko Grmek, ed., Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 25-28.
[2] Gregory of Nazianzus, "The Panegyric on St. Basil" in A Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (New York: Christian Literature Co., 1890-1900), vol. 7, 398.
[3] Richard C. Dales, The Intellectual Life of Western Europe in the Middle Ages (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995), 151-152.
[4] Ibid.,153-154.
[5] John of Slisbury, The Policraticus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 28-30.
[6] Abbot Suger, "De Administratione" in Erwin Panofsky, Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St.-Denis and its Art Treasures (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 63-64.
[1] Jacques Jouanna, "The Birth of Western Medical Art" in Mirko Grmek, ed., Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 25-28.
[2] Gregory of Nazianzus, "The Panegyric on St. Basil" in A Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (New York: Christian Literature Co., 1890-1900), vol. 7, 398.
[3] Richard C. Dales, The Intellectual Life of Western Europe in the Middle Ages (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995), 151-152.
[4] Ibid.,153-154.
[5] John of Slisbury, The Policraticus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 28-30.
[6] Abbot Suger, "De Administratione" in Erwin Panofsky, Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St.-Denis and its Art Treasures (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 63-64.
